Etruscan Art and Iconography Had a Great Influence on Which Culture?

The Origins of Etruria

The Etruscans were a Mediterranean civilization during the 6^thursday to 3^rd century BCE, from whom the Romans derived a great deal of cultural influence.

Learning Objectives

Explain the relationship betwixt the Etruscan and Roman civilizations

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• The prevailing view is that Rome was founded past Italics who after merged with Etruscans. Rome was likely a small settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans, who then established Rome's urban infrastructure.
• The Etruscans were indigenous to the Mediterranean surface area, probably stemming from the Villanovan culture.
• The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and atomic number 26, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans, and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian Peninsula and the western Mediterranean Sea. Conflicts with the Greeks led the Etruscans to ally themselves with the Carthaginians.
• The Etruscans governed within a state system,  with only remnants of the chiefdom or tribal forms. The Etruscan land government was essentially a theocracy.
• Aristocratic families were of import within Etruscan lodge, and women enjoyed, insufficiently, many freedoms within society.
• The Etruscan system of conventionalities was an immanent polytheism that incorporated indigenous, Indo-European, and Greek influences.
• It is believed that the Etruscans spoke a non-Indo-European language, probably related to what is called the Tyrsenian linguistic communication family unit, which is itself an isolate family, or in other words, unrelated directly to other known language groups.

Key Terms

• theocracy: A grade of government in which a deity is officially recognized as the civil ruler, and official policy is governed past officials regarded as divinely guided, or is pursuant to the doctrine of a particular religion or religious group.
• Etruscan: The modern name given to a civilization of ancient Italian republic in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Latium.
• oligarchic: A form of power structure in which power effectively rests with a pocket-sized number of people. These people could be distinguished by royalty, wealth, family unit ties, instruction, corporate, or military command. Such states are oftentimes controlled by a few prominent families who typically laissez passer their influence from one generation to the adjacent; however, inheritance is non a necessary condition for the application of this term.

Those who subscribe to an Italic (a various group of people who inhabited pre-Roman Italia) foundation of Rome, followed by an Etruscan invasion, typically speak of an Etruscan "influence" on Roman culture; that is, cultural objects that were adopted by Rome from neighboring Etruria. The prevailing view is that Rome was founded by Italics who later merged with Etruscans. In that case, Etruscan cultural objects are not a heritage but are, instead, influences. Rome was likely a pocket-sized settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans, who and so established its initial urban infrastructure.

Origins

The origins of the Etruscans are more often than not lost in prehistory. Historians accept no literature, and no original texts of religion or philosophy. Therefore, much of what is known about this culture is derived from grave goods and tomb findings. The main hypotheses state that the Etruscans were indigenous to the region, probably stemming from the Villanovan civilisation or from the Near E. Etruscan expansion was focused both to the north, across the Apennines, and into Campania. The mining and commerce of metal, particularly copper and atomic number 26, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans, and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian Peninsula and the western Mediterranean Sea. Here, their interests collided with those of the Greeks, particularly in the 6t^h century BCE, when Phoceans of Italy founded colonies along the coast of Sardinia, Espana, and Corsica. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with the Carthaginians, whose interests likewise collided with the Greeks.

Map of the Etruscan Civilization: Extent of Etruscan civilization and the 12 Etruscan League cities.

Around 540 BCE, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean Sea. Though the battle had no articulate winner, Carthage managed to aggrandize its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the northern Tyrrhenian Ocean with total ownership of Corsica. From the first half of the v^th century BCE, the new international political situation signaled the offset of Etruscan decline afterward they had lost their southern provinces. In 480 BCE, Etruria's ally, Carthage, was defeated past a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse. A few years later, in 474 BCE, Syracuse'southward tyrant, Hiero, defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae. Etruria's influence over the cities of Latium and Campania weakened, and it was taken over by the Romans and Samnites. In the 4^thursday century, Etruria saw a Gallic invasion terminate its influence over the Po valley and the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Rome had started annexing Etruscan cities. These events led to the loss of the Northern Etruscan provinces. Etruria was conquered past Rome in the 3^rd century BCE.

Etruscan Government

The Etruscans governed using a state organization of society, with only remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms. In this fashion, they were different from the surrounding Italics. Rome was, in a sense, the first Italic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believed that the Etruscan authorities style changed from total monarchy to an oligarchic republic (as the Roman Republic did) in the 6^th century BCE, although it is important to annotation this did not happen to all city-states.

The Etruscan state government was substantially a theocracy. The authorities was viewed as being a cardinal authorization over all tribal and clan organizations. Information technology retained the power of life and death; in fact, the gorgon, an ancient symbol of that power, appears every bit a motif in Etruscan ornament. The adherents to this land ability were united by a mutual religion. Political unity in Etruscan gild was the urban center-state, and Etruscan texts name quite a number of magistrates without explanation of their function (the camthi, the parnich, the purth, the tamera, the macstrev, etc.).

Etruscan Families

Co-ordinate to inscriptional testify from tombs, aristocratic families were of import inside Etruscan lodge. Most likely, aristocratic families rose to prominence over time through the aggregating of wealth via trade, with many of the wealthiest Etruscan cities located near the coast.

The Etruscan name for family was lautn, and at the middle of the lautn was the married couple. Etruscans were monogamous, and the lids of big numbers of sarcophagi were decorated with images of smile couples in the prime of their life, oft reclining side by side to each other or in an embrace. Many tombs also included funerary inscriptions naming the parents of the deceased, indicating the importance of the mother's side of the family in Etruscan society. Additionally, Etruscan women were allowed considerable freedoms in comparing to Greek and Roman women, and mixed-sexual activity socialization outside the domestic realm occurred.

Etruscan Organized religion

The Etruscan arrangement of belief was an immanent polytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to exist a manifestation of divine power, and that power was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the globe of human being and could be dissuaded or persuaded in favor of human affairs. 3 layers of deities are evident in the extensive Etruscan fine art motifs. I appears to be divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, the sun; Tivr, the moon; Selvans, a civil god; Turan, the goddess of love; Laran, the god of war; Leinth, the goddess of death; Maris; Thalna; Turms; and the ever-popular Fufluns, whose name is related in an unknown way to the city of Populonia and the populus Romanus, the Roman people.

Ruling over this pantheon of bottom deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the Indo-European system: Can or Tinia, the sky; Uni, his wife (Juno); and Cel, the earth goddess. In add-on the Greek gods were taken into the Etruscan arrangement: Aritimi (Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), and Pacha (Bacchus). The Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively in fine art motifs.

The Greek polytheistic approach was like to the Etruscan religious and cultural base. As the Romans emerged from the legacy created past both of these groups, it shared in a belief system of many gods and deities.

Etruscan Language and Etymology

Knowledge of the Etruscan linguistic communication is still far from consummate. It is believed that the Etruscans spoke a non-Indo-European language, probably related to what is called the Tyrsenian language family, which is itself an isolate family, or in other words, unrelated directly to other known language groups. No etymology exists for Rasna, the Etruscans' name for themselves, though Italian historic linguist, Massimo Pittau, has proposed that it meant "shaved" or "beardless." The hypothesized etymology for Tusci, a root for "Tuscan" or "Etruscan," suggests a connection to the Latin and Greek words for "tower," illustrating the Tusci people equally those who congenital towers. This was possibly based upon the Etruscan preference for building hill towns on high precipices that were enhanced by walls. The give-and-take may likewise be related to the city of Troy, which was too a urban center of towers, suggesting large numbers of migrants from that region into Etruria.

Etruscan Artifacts

Historians have no literature, or original Etruscan religious or philosophical texts, on which to base of operations noesis of their culture. So much of what is known is derived from grave goods and tomb findings.

Learning Objectives

Explain the importance of Etruscan artifacts to our understanding of their history

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Princely tombs did not business firm individuals, but families who were interred over long periods.
• Although many Etruscan cities were later assimilated by Italic, Celtlic, or Roman indigenous groups, the Etruscan names and inscriptions that survive within the ruins provide historic bear witness equally to the range of settlements that the Etruscans synthetic.
• It is unclear whether Etruscan cultural objects are influences upon Roman culture or role of native Roman heritage. The criterion for deciding whether or not an object originated in Rome or descended to the Romans from the Etruscans is the appointment of the object and the opinion of ancient sources regarding the provenance of the object'south style.
• Although Diodorus of Sicily wrote, in the 1^st century, of the great achievements of the Etruscans, little survives or is known of it.

Cardinal Terms

• sarcophagi: A box-like funeral receptacle for a corpse, near usually carved in rock and displayed above basis.
• oligarchic: A form of power construction in which power finer rests with a pocket-sized number of people. These people could be distinguished by royalty, wealth, family unit ties, pedagogy, corporate, or military control. Such states are oft controlled by a few prominent families who typically pass their influence from one generation to the next, just inheritance is not a necessary condition for the application of this term.

Historians have no literature or original Etruscan religious or philosophical texts on which to base knowledge of their civilisation, so much of what is known is derived from grave goods and tomb findings. Princely tombs did not business firm individuals, but families who were interred over long periods. The decorations and objects included at these sites paint a pic of Etruscan social and political life. For example, wealth from trade seems to have supported the rise of aristocratic families who, in plow, were likely foundational to the Etruscan oligarchic system of governance. Indeed, at some Etruscan tombs, physical bear witness of trade has been plant in the form of grave appurtenances, including fine faience ware cups, which was likely the upshot of merchandise with Egypt. Additionally, the depiction of married couples on many sarcophagi provide insight into the respect and freedoms granted to women within Etruscan social club, as well as the accent placed on romantic love equally a basis for marriage pairings.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses: Sarcophagus of an Etruscan couple in the Louvre, Room xviii.

Although many Etruscan cities were later assimilated past Italic, Celtic, or Roman ethnic groups, the Etruscan names and inscriptions that survive inside the ruins provide historic testify of the range of settlements constructed by the Etruscans. Etruscan cities flourished over most of Italy during the Roman Iron Age. According to aboriginal sources, some cities were founded by the Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore entirely Etruscan names. Others were later colonized by the Etruscans from Italic groups.

Nonetheless, relatively trivial is known about the architecture of the ancient Etruscans. What is known is that they adjusted the native Italic styles with influence from the external advent of Greek architecture. Etruscan architecture is not generally considered part of the body of Greco-Roman classical compages. Though the houses of the wealthy were evidently very large and comfortable, the burying chambers of tombs, and the grave-goods that filled them, survived in greater numbers. In the southern Etruscan area, tombs contain big, rock-cut chambers nether a tumulus in large necropoli.

At that place is some contend among historians as to whether Rome was founded by Italic cultures and and then invaded past the Etruscans, or whether Etruscan cultural objects were adopted subsequently by Roman peoples. In other words, it is unclear whether Etruscan cultural objects are influences upon Roman culture, or part of native Roman heritage. Among archaeologists, the main criteria for deciding whether or non an object originated in Rome, or descended to the Romans from the Etruscans, is the appointment of the object, which is often determined by procedure of carbon dating. After this process, the opinion of ancient sources is consulted.

Although Diodorus of Sicily wrote in the 1st century of the great achievements of the Etruscans, little survives or is known of information technology. Well-nigh Etruscan script that does survive are fragments of religious and funeral texts. However, it is evident, from Etruscan visual fine art, that Greek myths were well known.

Etruscan Religion

The Etruscan belief system was heavily influenced by other religions in the region, and placed heavy accent on the divination of the gods' wills to guide human affairs.

Learning Objectives

Describe some of the key characteristics of the Etruscan conventionalities system

Central Takeaways

Key Points

• The Etruscan organization of belief was an immanent polytheism, meaning all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of divine power, and that power was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the world of man.
• The Etruscan scriptures were a corpus of texts termed the Etrusca Disciplina, a gear up of rules for the conduct of all divination.
• Three layers of deities are evident in the extensive Etruscan art motifs: indigenous, Indo-European, and Greek.
• Etruscan beliefs concerning the afterlife were influenced past a number of sources, particularly those of the early Mediterranean region.

Key Terms

• Etrusca Disciplina: A corpus of texts that comprised the Etruscan scriptures, which essentially provided a systematic guide to divination.
• polytheism: The worship of, or belief in, multiple deities, normally assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, each with their ain specific religions and rituals.

The Etruscan organization of belief was an immanent polytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of divine power and that ability was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the globe of homo, and could be dissuaded or persuaded in favor of human affairs. The Greek polytheistic approach was similar to the Etruscan religious and cultural base. As the Romans emerged from the legacy created past both of these groups, it shared in a belief organization of many gods and deities.

Etrusca Disciplina

The Etruscan scriptures were a corpus of texts, termed the Etrusca Disciplina. These texts were not scriptures in the typical sense, and foretold no prophecies. The Etruscans did not announced to have a systematic rubric for ideals or morals. Instead, they concerned themselves with the problem of understanding the will of the gods, which the Etruscans considered inscrutable. The Etruscans did not attempt to rationalize or explain divine actions or intentions, but to simply divine what the gods' wills were through an elaborate system of divination. Therefore, the Etrusca Disciplina is mainly a gear up of rules for the conduct of all sorts of divination. Information technology does not dictate what laws shall be fabricated or how humans are to bear, but instead elaborates rules for how to ask the gods these questions and receive their answers.

Divinations were conducted by priests, who the Romans called haruspicesor sacerdotes. A special magistrate was designated to look after sacred items, but every man had religious responsibilities. In this way, the Etruscans placed special emphasis upon intimate contact with divinity, consulting with the gods and seeking signs from them before embarking upon a task.

Spirits and Deities

Three layers of deities are evident in the all-encompassing Etruscan art motifs. I appears to be divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, the sun; Tivr, the moon; Selvans, a civil god; Turan, the goddess of dearest; Laran, the god of war; Leinth, the goddess of death; Maris; Thalna; Turms; and the ever-popular Fufluns, whose proper noun is related in some unknown way to the city of Populonia and the populus Romanus (the Roman people). Ruling over this pantheon of lesser deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the Indo European system: Tin or Tinia, the sky; Uni, his wife (Juno); and Cel, the earth goddess. In addition, the Greek gods were taken into the Etruscan organization: Aritimi (Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), and Pacha (Bacchus). The Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively in art motifs.

Mars of Todi: The Mars of Todi, a life-sized Etruscan bronze sculpture of a soldier making a votive offering, most probable to Laran, the Etruscan god of war; late 5th to early fourth century BCE.

The Afterlife

Etruscan behavior concerning the afterlife seem to be influenced by a number of sources. The Etruscans shared in general early Mediterranean beliefs. For instance, much like the Egyptians, the Etruscans believed that survival and prosperity in the afterlife depended on the treatment of the deceased'due south remains. Souls of ancestors are establish depicted around Etruscan tombs, and after the 5th century BCE, the deceased are depicted in iconography as traveling to the underworld. In several instances, spirits of the dead are referred to as hinthial, or one who is underneath. The transmigrational world across the grave was patterned after the Greek Hades and ruled by Aita. The deceased were guided there by Charun, the equivalent of Death, who was bluish and wielded a hammer. The Etruscan version of Hades was populated past Greek mythological figures, some of which were of composite appearance to those in Greek mythology.

Etruscan tombs imitated domestic structures, contained wall paintings and even furniture, and were spacious. The deceased was depicted in the tomb at the prime number of their life, and ofttimes with a spouse. Not everyone had a sarcophagus, however. Some deceased individuals were laid out on stone benches, and depending on the proportion of inhumation, versus cremation, rites followed, cremated ashes and bones might be put into an urn in the shape of a house, or in a representation of the deceased.

Reconstruction of an Etruscan Temple: 19th century reconstruction of an Etruscan temple, in the courtyard of the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome, Italian republic.

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Source: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-etruscans/

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